Have you ever wondered about the weight your vehicle carries and how it affects your journey? Whether you’re an avid caravanner, a 4x4 enthusiast, or a regular driver, understanding Gross Vehicle Mass (GVM) is crucial. It’s not just about compliance with legal limits—it’s about safety, vehicle performance, and even the longevity of your vehicle.
In this comprehensive guide, we’ll unravel the complexities of GVM, from its basic definition to its implications on vehicle warranties and insurance. We’ll explore how to calculate it, why it’s important, and what options you have if you find yourself exceeding these limits including a closer look at the options for GVM upgrades.
So buckle up and get ready for a deep dive into the world of Gross Vehicle Mass—a journey that could change the way you drive forever!
Understanding The Meaning Of Gross Vehicle Mass (GVM)
Gross Vehicle Mass, or GVM, is a term predominantly used in Australia, equal with the globally recognised term “Gross Vehicle Weight Rating” (GVWR) often used by vehicle manufacturers. Essentially, GVM represents the maximum permissible loaded weight of a vehicle.
GVM Over 4,500kg: What Does It Mean?
Australia stands out as one of the few countries that permit a GVM of up to 4,500kg on a standard driver’s license. If a vehicle exceeds this 4.5T rating, the driver must obtain a Light Rigid (LR) license, which covers vehicles up to 8T. Beyond this, you’re looking at Medium Rigid (MR) licenses and above. This article will primarily focus on typical commuter vehicles with a GVM of up to 4.5T, as exceeding this limit involves more stringent license requirements, education, training, and scrutiny from transportation authorities.
GVM: Applicable to Vehicles, Caravans, and Trailers?
The term GVM can be a source of confusion, particularly in Australia, where it typically refers to the vehicle itself. However, trailers and caravans have a local equivalent term - Aggregate Trailer Mass (ATM). Internationally, GVWR is often applied to any road-licensed vehicle and trailer, effectively replacing the ATM term used locally. So, if you hear GVM used in relation to a caravan or trailer, it’s not incorrect; it’s simply substituting ATM.
Actual Weight vs. Limit: The GVM Dilemma
Another point of confusion arises from the interchangeable use of GVM to define both a vehicle’s maximum permitted weight and its actual weight as measured by a scale. Internationally, two distinct terms are used to avoid this confusion:
- Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (GVWR) – This represents the vehicle’s maximum limit. Exceeding this limit renders the vehicle unroadworthy.
- Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) – This is the actual weight of the vehicle, as measured by a scale.
In Australia, however, we use the term Gross Vehicle Mass for both purposes, making context crucial when interpreting its usage.
Calculating Gross Vehicle Mass: What’s Included?
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Understanding what contributes to the gross vehicle weight of a vehicle can be tricky. Let’s break it down to provide a clear guide.
Tare / Kerb Weight
Start with your vehicle’s Tare or Kerb weight. The use of these terms varies among vehicle manufacturers. Essentially, this is the weight of your new vehicle, with or without fluids.
For simplicity, use the Kerb weight as your starting point. This includes the empty weight of your vehicle, with all fluids and a full tank of fuel.
The Devil is in the Details
Although your vehicles Kerb weight provides a good baseline, it often doesn’t reflect the vehicle’s true empty weight, as it excludes any additional fittings like floor mats or tow hitches unless they are standard features.
Adding Accessories and Fitout
Once you have the Kerb weight, you'll need to consider all the additional features fitted to your vehicle post-purchase or beyond the base specifications, including:
- Floor mats
- Tow hitch
- Roof racks
- Bull bars
- UHF’s
- Spotlights
- Portable Fridges
- Dual batteries
- Children's car seats
Remember, every additional item reduces your remaining cargo capacity, so it’s crucial to include everything, no matter how small (except perhaps that scented pine tree).
Accounting for Passengers and Pets
Next, factor in all potential occupants—driver, passengers, children, and pets. The combined weight of a family and their pets can be significant, making it critical to consider everyone who’ll be riding in the vehicle when planning your travels.
Luggage and Gear
Now consider all the items you might take along:
- Clothes
- Food and beverages
- Camping equipment
- Recover gear
- Entertainment items
- Jerry cans
Each item adds to the total load, influencing the final GVM calculation.
Don’t Forget the Trailer’s Tongue Weight
A frequently overlooked factor when calculating Gross Vehicle Mass is the weight of the trailer’s tongue weight or tow ball mass. This weight, applied to your vehicle’s tow hitch, is a significant contributor to your gross vehicle mass and should always be accounted for in your calculations.
Calculating Tongue Weight
The ideal tongue weight is generally recommended to be between 8-12% of your total trailer weight. This range ensures optimal balance and stability of the trailer when hitched to the vehicle. However, the exact percentage can vary based on the trailer type and load distribution:
• Camping trailers and single-axle caravans often have higher tongue weights proportionally, as they are typically shorter and may concentrate weight closer to the hitch.
• Larger double-axle caravans tend to have a more evenly distributed load, which can lead to a lower percentage of tongue weight relative to the total trailer weight.
Why 10% Is the Target
The 10% figure is often cited as the "magic number" because it strikes a balance between too little and too much weight. Too little tongue weight can cause the trailer to sway, potentially leading to loss of control. Conversely, too much tongue weight can overload the vehicle's rear axle and affect the steering and braking performance. By aiming for around 10%, you are likely achieving a safe towing experience while maintaining good vehicle control.
Monitoring Changes in Tongue Weight
It’s important to remember that the actual tongue weight will often vary from trip to trip:
• Shifting or adding cargo: Any movement or addition of items within the trailer will alter the weight distribution and affect the tongue/ball weight.
• Changes in vehicle or trailer configuration: Modifications to either the trailer or the towing vehicle, like adding a storage box at the rear of the trailer or changing the towing setup with say a Weight Distribution Hitch, can also impact the tongue weight.
Pulling It All Together: Mastering Your GVM Calculations
Understanding Your GVM
Now you have all the ingredients you have a basis for understanding your GVM, and hopefully Now that you're equipped with the necessary information, you should have a solid understanding of your vehicle’s Gross Vehicle Mass (GVM) and, hopefully, find that you are well within your vehicle's limits. However, you might be thinking, "That’s a lot to consider! It all seems quite daunting." Don't worry—let's break down your options to simplify the process.
Approaches to GVM Calculation
The ‘Just Send It’ Approach
Sadly, many drivers are blissfully unaware of their actual vehicle weights and limits, choosing ignorance over safety. Some even knowingly drive unroadworthy vehicles. We’ll discuss why this isn’t advisable later, but since you're here, reading this article, it’s likely you’re not in this category.
The ‘Back of the Envelope’ Calculation
A common approach is to perform a basic calculation of the major items, sometimes jotting down a quick list, other times relying on mental math. While better than nothing, this method can easily miss important details.
The Excel Method
A step up from rough notes, there are several excellent Excel templates available to help travelers calculate their vehicle limits. These sheets can increase accuracy but also the risk of errors in calculations. Despite good intentions, this method often leads to inadvertent limit breaches.
The Weighbridge Option
A great, accurate, and convenient option is to find a local certified weighbridge and get your vehicle weighed! You won’t get the level of granular detail from other methods, but you’ll know your actual GVM, as well as front and rear axle weights.
Mobile Professional Weight Checks
Like all trades and professions, there are cowboys and superstars. But generally, there’s no substitute for a professional mobile weight check. You’ll receive a personalised report of your vehicle, a breakdown of your GVM and axle weights, and exact knowledge of where you stand against your limits. Many providers will also share their wisdom and offer guidance and advice, an invaluable benefit, particularly for newcomers.
The LoadMate Platform
Designed as your co-pilot for those trying to stay on top of their GVM for towing purposes, particularly caravanning, LoadMate is a complex calculation tool. It’s designed to give you an accurate profile of your vehicle and caravan’s actual weights versus the compliance limits. LoadMate makes it effortless to account for your vehicle’s accessories, occupants, luggage, and of course, the impact of the trailer tongue weight/tow ball mass. It provides the next generation of caravan and towing weight management, linking in with professional weight checks from weighbridges and mobile weight services, capturing the actual weight at that point in time and using it as a basis for any changes from there.
This is invaluable for many caravanners, as by the very nature of travelling, your trip is forever changing, with new tools, accessories, entertainment, and even packing for winter versus summer. LoadMate makes it effortless to stay on top of it all, removing the confusion while giving you an up-to-date towing and weight profile for your unique rig.
Don’t Forget the Safety Buffer!
No matter which method you choose, always include a safety buffer in your calculations. This buffer accounts for fluctuations and the unpredictable nature of travel. Maintaining a margin between your vehicle’s laden weight and its limits is crucial not only for safety and compliance but also to minimise wear and tear on the vehicle.
Understanding Axle Weight Limits: A Critical Aspect of Vehicle Compliance
Another crucial weight limit that complements your Gross Vehicle Mass is the Gross Axle Weight Rating. This rating defines the weight limits for both your front and rear axles. It’s of paramount importance for anyone loading up their vehicle for towing or touring. Many people exceed their vehicle’s axle weight limits before they hit their other compliance limits, often due to the complexity of calculating and understanding their specific setup.
The Leverage Effect on Axle Weights
One of the primary reasons axle weights are exceeded is the leverage effect caused by the vehicle’s tow hitch. The rear axle, acting as a fulcrum, and the distance between the axle and the tow hitch, acting as a lever, can magnify the weight exerted on your rear axles. For instance, a heavy caravan weighing 3,500kg with a tow ball weight of 350kg can apply an actual weight of about 490 - 525kg to the rear axle. This figure doesn't even include additional loads like luggage, occupants, or accessories. This leverage effect is a common oversight and a complex issue that often catches vehicle owners by surprise.
So, how can you stay on top of axle weights? There are really only two options, and they are best done together.
Professional Weighing
There is no substitute for getting your rig professionally weighed. This provides a clear foundation and empowers you to make smarter decisions with any required changes.
Using LoadMate for Axle Weight Guidance
The only other platform that offers in-depth guidance for axle weight limits is LoadMate. This platform can input some critical dimensions from your vehicle and caravan, and based on these inputs, calculate exactly the impact of all your loads, accessories, and trailer weights on your axle weight limits.
To achieve accurate tracking with LoadMate, starting with a professional weight check is advisable. Without this initial measurement, LoadMate must make assumptions based on typical unladen weight distribution between the front and rear axles. While this can provide a close estimate, the initial professional check ensures precision, especially if you’re nearing your weight limits.
The Importance of GVM: Why It Matters
You might be wondering why GVM ratings are important, why you should be concerned with them, and even if it matters given that you’ve never actually been weighed by authorities. Let’s break down why it matters:
Legal Implications
From a legal perspective, the Law states that your vehicle cannot exceed your registered GVM, including other weight compliance limits specified by the manufacturer.
If you are found to be outside your vehicle’s limits, there are heavy fines, which vary by each State and Territory, in addition to being deemed unroadworthy.
In a worst-case scenario, if you are involved in a serious accident where a formal crash investigation is conducted, and the cause of the accident is found to be your fault due to exceeding the vehicle’s legal limits, you could be subject to criminal prosecution.
Insurance
In the event your vehicle is found to be unroadworthy due to exceeding your vehicle’s limits, your insurance could be void.
This clause is as bulletproof as they come in any Product Disclosure Statement (PDS) from all insurers.
However, common sense does have to prevail here. For instance, if your vehicle is overloaded but you reverse into a pole, these two factors would not be correlated, and you would be unlucky to have your insurance denied. The main concern will be in the event any such incident occurs that may draw the attention of the insurer to the topic.
Vehicle Warranties
Like insurance, vehicle warranties are also impacted by overloading. If a failure occurs and the manufacturer determines that it was due to the vehicle being overloaded, the warranty on key components could be voided. This typically includes critical parts such as the chassis, drivetrain, engine, and suspension—the components most likely to suffer from excess weight.
However, it’s important to approach this sensibly. For instance, if your radio malfunctions, you should still be covered by the warranty, as this issue is unlikely to be related to overloading.
A word of caution: vehicle manufacturers can be quite astute when trying to avoid warranty costs. If your vehicle has aftermarket additions like a bull bar, suspension changes, air bags, roof tray, boot fit out with sliders, fridges, dual batteries, compressors, and more, you may find yourself under more scrutiny than if you were driving a stock equivalent vehicle coming in for a similar issue.
Safety
Most importantly is safety. As the vehicle’s owner, it is your responsibility to not endanger other road users or cause damage to their property. In addition, if you are carrying occupants in your vehicle, it is your responsibility to ensure the health and safety of those passengers. Being responsible for the injury or death of another person due to your negligence is by far the worst possible outcome.
Key Safety Risks Associated with Overloading:
- Reduced Handling and Stability: Overloading can affect the vehicle’s handling and stability, making it more difficult to control, especially during turns and sudden manoeuvres. The increased weight can lead to a higher risk of rollovers, particularly in vehicles with a higher centre of gravity.
- Braking Distance: Overloaded vehicles require a longer distance to come to a complete stop. This can be critical in emergency situations, as the brakes may not perform as effectively.
- Tire Wear and Damage: Excessive weight can lead to increased wear on tires, as they are not designed to support loads beyond their specified capacity. Overloading can also cause overheating of tires, leading to blowouts and other tire failures.
- Suspension and Frame Damage: The vehicle’s suspension system is designed to handle a specific weight capacity. Overloading can cause damage to the suspension components, leading to decreased performance and increased maintenance costs. The vehicle’s frame may also be compromised, affecting its structural integrity.
- Reduced Fuel Efficiency: Overloaded vehicles typically experience decreased fuel efficiency. This is because the engine has to work harder to move the additional weight, leading to increased fuel consumption.
- Transmission Strain: Overloading can put extra strain on the transmission system, potentially leading to premature wear and failure.
- Increased Risk of Accidents: All the above factors contribute to an increased risk of accidents. Overloaded vehicles are more prone to mechanical failures and have reduced overall safety.
Exploring Options When You're Over Your GVM
If you find yourself exceeding your vehicle's Gross Vehicle Mass (GVM), it's crucial to step back and reassess your setup comprehensively:
- Is my vehicle suitable for my intended use? Perhaps a different model would better meet your needs without requiring modifications.
- Can I remove any non-essential accessories? Reducing extra weight can sometimes solve the problem without further measures.
- What gear is essential? Lighten your load by only carrying what you truly need.
- Is my vehicle appropriate for towing? If you’re considering towing heavy loads, consider whether your vehicle is the right fit for the job.
If, after thorough consideration, you find that your vehicle is still the best fit and essential adjustments can't sufficiently reduce the load, it might be time to explore GVM upgrades.
What is a GVM upgrade?
In most instances, a GVM upgrade involves replacing the standard vehicle springs and shock absorbers with heavy-duty variants made by a Second Stage Manufacturer (SSM). This is not a genuine product from the vehicle manufacturer themselves. Some vehicles may require other parts as part of the upgrade, at times including radiator upgrades.
The Second Stage Manufacturers of these kits have either received State or Federal approval for these kits, allowing them to re-plaque the vehicle for a higher GVM rating.
If your vehicle has a plethora of aftermarket accessories available for it, then it’s likely to have a GVM upgrade available. However, this is more probable for mainstream vehicles within the 4x4 and commercial ute category in Australia. Less-popular brands and some model variants may not be catered to.
When considering a GVM upgrade, it’s important to do your research on the exact year, model, and variant relevant to you. You may find there is an upgrade available for a different motor variant, but your specific build isn’t catered to.
Once the SSM kit has been installed, the vehicle needs to go over the pits. After passing the pits, you take these documents to your local licensing centre, and they will update your vehicle’s license.
Voila, you now have a pass to load up your vehicle. But is it that simple? Let’s explore further
Why You Might Consider a GVM Upgrade
Safe Towing Ratios
Firstly, a GVM upgrade can be beneficial when towing, particularly if the upgrade allows you to load more weight into the tow vehicle itself, thereby achieving a higher vehicle-to-trailer weight ratio.
A good rule of thumb when towing is that your laden tow vehicle should always weigh more than the laden trailer it’s towing.
Advice varies on the ratio, but a reasonable guideline is that the trailer should be no more than 90% of the laden vehicle’s weight.
So, if a GVM upgrade allows you to achieve this safe towing ratio, then it could be a sensible option, albeit with certain conditions.
Intermittent Extra Capacity
If you generally operate within your vehicle's standard specifications and only occasionally require additional payload capacity, a GVM upgrade might be justified. This allows you to handle those few instances where extra capacity is needed without permanently switching to a heavier or more robust vehicle.
Why You Might Reconsider a GVM Upgrade
Frequent Overloading
However, if you find that you need a GVM upgrade to achieve what you need to do for the majority of the time, then it might be worth reconsidering the suitability of your vehicle. For instance, if you’re planning a trip around Australia and you need a GVM upgrade to stay within your limits, then it would be prudent to think carefully about your approach. Similarly, if you are using your vehicle for commercial purposes and the GVM is needed to achieve your purpose, then the vehicle probably isn’t suited to the task.
Vehicle Suitability and Integrity
Let’s face it, adding some new suspension components does little to improve the vehicle’s chassis, reinforce its structural integrity, or enhance the robustness of the powertrain, among other components. In essence, the vehicle isn’t any more suited to carry heavy loads than it was prior to the GVM upgrade, aside from your suspension sagging less. It’s more an exercise of administrative compliance than it is about improving the vehicle. So, it’s important to weigh these considerations carefully before deciding on a GVM upgrade.
Understanding the Complications of GVM Upgrades
Increased wear and tear
Operating your vehicle at its maximum capacity, and beyond with a GVM upgrade, places a significant load on the vehicle itself.
This extra burden inevitably accelerates the wear and tear on the vehicle, especially on critical driveline components.
As a general rule, the percentage increase in your GVM is equivalent to the percentage increase in accelerated wear and tear. For example, if you increase your GVM rating by 20%, expect a 20% increase in the wear and tear.
Consequently, this heightened wear will likely lead to increased maintenance costs and a higher likelihood of component failures, often at the worst possible time.
Vehicle Warranty Considerations
If your vehicle is still within its new car warranty period, you can pretty much consider this now void. Every single warranty statement from vehicle manufacturers exclusively states the warranties will be void in the event the vehicle is used or loaded outside its stated limits. They also exclude works and modifications conducted by unauthorised third parties, or in simple terms, your selected Second Stage Manufacturer.
A direct extract from Toyota’s warranty advantage documentation highlights this:
What are some common examples of aftermarket accessories voiding a car’s warranty?
Suspension upgrades, also known as Gross Vehicle Mass (GVM) upgrades. It’s where there are changes made to the vehicle’s suspension to increase the carrying capacity of the vehicle above what is stipulated. This is a common issue with commercial vehicles because customers want them to tow more than what Toyota specify.
So be prepared for having any claims rejected that involve your vehicle’s powertrain, the motor, transmission, running gear, and of course, the structural components.
But the GVM Upgrade Provider Says My Warranty Is Valid?
You will often see advertised or hear from SSMs that their kits will not void your vehicle’s warranties. This is a significant stretch and lacks some pertinent information that customers need to know.
The fact is your vehicle’s warranty, from the original manufacturer, will be voided as per the above. No claims or bold statements from the GVM Upgrade provider will change the OEM’s willingness to cover any related warranty costs that may be attributed to the increased loading beyond the factory-specified limits.
Again, the devil is in the details. SSM approval holders for GVM upgrades are required to warrant the vehicle for any failures as a result of the modifications. The modifier would be liable for any issues or failures on the vehicle that may arise as a result of the excessive loading on all components relating to suspension and driveline.
Understanding the Warranty Provided by the SSM
It’s important to understand the scope of warranty provided by the SSM before making any assumptions. We’ve provided some key extracts to help:
“Vehicle warranty is not affected when a GVM Upgrade is fitted. Our testing and analysis procedures are stringent and undertaken by an accredited Automotive Engineering Consultant to ensure original equipment components are not compromised. Modifications and load limits are within theoretical service/safety factors to ensure the integrity and longevity of Original Equipment parts associated with increasing the vehicles load carrying capabilities. As (SSM) are a Second Stage Manufacturer, it is our responsibility to document these tests and thus take responsibility for the GVM upgrade compliance.”
"Therefore, should an original equipment component fail and be directly attributed/caused by the vehicle carrying loads to a maximum GVM of the revised figure or part failure associated with the GVM Upgrade modification, (SSM) will cover warranty of the component after written proof and testing by an independent body has been lodged."
"A vehicle that carries weight or loads in excess of the manufacturers GVM or a vehicle that has had an increase in its ride height will have “accelerated” wear and tear on its driveline components. The above warranty does not cover any components that have failed due to what is deemed “standard” wear and tear on a vehicle with increased ride height and weight carrying abilities."
As you can see, any issues that may arise with your vehicle will require comprehensive testing, with a written report submitted by an independent body that the SSM accepts. This isn’t your preferred mechanic, but an accredited Automotive Engineering Consultant.
Within this independent investigation, you will need unequivocal proof the failure has not arisen due to the ‘accelerated’ wear and tear that voids coverage.
Consumer Protection and GVM Upgrades
Under the Australian Consumer Law (ACL), consumer guarantees ensure that products, including vehicles, must be of acceptable quality, fit for purpose, and match descriptions provided at the time of purchase. However, these guarantees have certain limitations, particularly when it comes to consumer behaviour and modifications to the product.
Key points and relevant sections from the ACL regarding exclusions to consumer protections include:
- Consumer Misuse: According to Section 64 of the ACL, consumer guarantees do not apply if the consumer uses the goods in an abnormal manner. This means that if a consumer fails to follow the vehicle owner’s manual or uses the vehicle in a way that it is not intended to be used, the consumer guarantees might not apply.
- Modifications and Alterations: The ACL also states that consumer guarantees may not apply if any modifications or alterations made to the vehicle contribute to the failure. Specifically, if a consumer modifies their vehicle in ways that are not approved or recommended by the manufacturer, and this leads to a problem or failure, the manufacturer or dealer can argue that the consumer guarantees do not cover this issue.
In the event you have a warranty claim denied that can be associated as a result of the GVM upgrade, and you believe you have been incorrectly dismissed, the burden of proof does sit with the manufacturer to prove your actions caused the failure and thus their exclusions apply. However, if you disagree with their findings, you may be in for an expensive and drawn-out legal case, which could dwarf the costs of any vehicle recertification. It’s crucial to understand these complexities before deciding on a GVM upgrade.
Considering Second-Hand Purchases with Heavy Use?
If you’re contemplating purchasing a second-hand vehicle that has been subject to heavy loads and excessive towing, it’s prudent to be aware that you’re likely going to face higher costs down the line compared to an alternative option.
Understanding State vs. Federal GVM Upgrades
In practical terms, if your vehicle has already been registered, you will be getting a State-approved GVM upgrade.
This means your vehicle’s GVM upgrade will not be recognised in a different state if the vehicle is sold and registered there.
However, this does not mean you are unroadworthy if you are driving through a different State or Territory. This only applies if you sell or transfer the vehicle.
On the other hand, if a GVM upgrade is applied to a new vehicle before its initial registration, it is recognised at a federal level. This means the increased load limits will be acknowledged across all states and territories, providing broader compliance and fewer issues with interstate vehicle sales or re-registration.
Choosing Second Stage Manufacturers (SSMs)
When choosing an SSM for a GVM upgrade, it’s essential to select a supplier with a credible reputation and the necessary state accreditations. Here are some tips:
- Research Credibility and History: Opt for well-established brands that have a strong track record in your state or territory. This can help avoid issues with compliance and ensure that the upgrade meets all required standards.
- Check Accreditations: Ensure that the SSM has the proper accreditation from the relevant state authorities to perform the upgrades. This is critical to ensure that the modifications are legally recognized and technically sound.
- Confirm Details in Writing: Before proceeding with any work, get everything confirmed in writing. This includes the scope of the upgrade, who will perform the work, and the accreditation details. Having a clear, written agreement can prevent misunderstandings and provide recourse in case of disputes.
Final Thoughts
In conclusion, understanding Gross Vehicle Mass and the implications of GVM upgrades is not just a matter of legal compliance—it’s about ensuring safety, optimising vehicle performance, and preserving the longevity of your vehicle. Whether you’re an avid caravanner, a 4x4 enthusiast, or a regular driver, being aware of these aspects can significantly enhance your driving experience.
For those pushing the limits and considering GVM upgrades, remember that it’s not just about carrying more load. It’s about understanding the impact on your vehicle, the increased wear and tear, and the potential implications on warranties and insurance.
Navigating the complexities of GVM its calculations can be challenging, but you don’t have to do it alone. If you’re looking to understand GVM for towing purposes, consider platforms like LoadMate. Designed as your co-pilot, LoadMate simplifies the process of staying on top of your GVM, amongst all the other limits. It provides an accurate profile of your vehicle and caravan’s actual weights versus the compliance limits, making it effortless to account for your vehicle’s accessories, occupants, luggage, and know exactly where you stand.
